During the reign of Queen Zenobia in the third century CE, the Jewish community in Syria was considered one of the region’s most significant, as evidenced by ancient synagogues unearthed throughout the country.
As for Zenobia’s own religious identity, a clear divide exists between sources: Christian texts describe her as a convert to Judaism, while rabbinic sources remain silent. Scholars suggest Zenobia may have sought to promote Judaism across the Roman Empire in accordance with a distinctly Judeo-Syrian tradition from Palmyra, which differed from and opposed rabbinic Judaism.
A new study by Dr. Haggai Olshnitzky of the University of Warsaw explores the source of the conflict between Zenobia and the rabbis. According to Olshnitzky, the queen, who represented a Jewish-Syrian community supportive of conversion and critical of rabbinic leadership, imprisoned several rabbis. He argues that the significant hostility toward her led to the omission of her conversion from rabbinic literature. Her story, he concludes, illustrates a Jewish world entirely different from both modern perceptions and mainstream historical assumptions.
Zenobia, formally Septimia Zenobia, was queen of Palmyra in the third century CE. From 267 to 272 CE, she ruled large parts of the eastern Roman Empire on behalf of her young son, Vaballathus. Zenobia is regarded as one of antiquity’s most powerful and impressive women, and her image became a symbol of resistance to Roman rule.
Born to a respected noble Assyrian family in Palmyra, Zenobia was known for her beauty, intelligence, wide-ranging education and fluency in multiple languages. She was also skilled in horseback riding and hunting, activities traditionally associated with men. She married Septimius Odaenathus, ruler of Palmyra, who had distinguished himself in battles against the Sassanian Empire (pre-Islamic Persia), thereby enhancing Palmyra’s status in relation to Rome.
After the assassination of Odaenathus and their eldest son, Zenobia declared herself regent on behalf of her young son and assumed full control. Exploiting the weakness and anarchy of the Roman Empire during what is known as the Crisis of the Third Century, she consolidated her authority, strengthened Palmyra’s position and personally led her armies. Her forces conquered Syria, and later launched campaigns that annexed Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). By 268 CE, Zenobia and Vaballathus functioned as independent rulers of the eastern Roman Empire, even issuing their own coins.
Several Christian sources claim that Zenobia was Jewish or had converted to Judaism. The connection between the queen and Judaism is a topic of differing and at times contradictory reports. For example, Athanasius of Alexandria, a fourth-century Church Father, portrayed her as a Jew who supported Paul of Samosata, the Christian patriarch of Antioch.
Other texts claim that Paul adopted the beliefs of the Artmonians—a Christian sect labeled heretical—to appease the converted queen, or that she embraced Judaism under his influence. The Jerusalem Talmud (Tractate Terumot, Chapter 8, Halakha 4) implies that Zenobia was harsh toward the rabbis of the Land of Israel and that her soldiers detained several of them at various times.
Rabbi Yohanan, who served as head of the rabbinic court during that era, expressed deep hostility toward Palmyra, its rule and particularly its Jews and converts. In the Jerusalem Talmud (Taanit 18b), “Zenobia the Queen” is described as having persecuted Jews. These and other references, along with the absence of any mention of her conversion, have led scholars to argue that Christian claims of her Judaism lack historical basis. Still, it is evident that Zenobia was a learned and cultured figure who attracted intellectuals, thinkers and clergy to her court, suggesting an openness to diverse cultures and religions, including Judaism.
Dr. Olshnitzky’s study, published in the academic journal Klio: Beiträge zur Alten Geschichte, challenges the long-standing scholarly skepticism regarding the reliability of Christian texts. He contends that these sources clearly combine two distinct ancient narratives.
One of the narratives appears to originate with a contemporary of Zenobia who documented her conversion, independent of later Christian figures or theological controversies added to the stories. “The internal contradictions within the Christian texts point to a synthesis of two separate traditions,” said Olshnitzky. “The text by Photius I of Constantinople, although written later, clearly shows that the tradition of Zenobia’s Judaism is ancient, dating back to the queen’s lifetime, and is independent of the story concerning the apostasy of Patriarch Paul of Samosata. Furthermore, Photius used historical texts in his work, many of which have survived only because of him, and his narrative is supported by several other non-ecclesiastical historical accounts.”
The study also refutes the widely held assumption that Zenobia’s conversion is implausible simply because it is not mentioned in rabbinic literature. According to Olshnitzky, that assumption reflects a misunderstanding of the historical context, the nature of rabbinic writings and the diversity of Jewish communities in that period.
“When we look at Zenobia’s world and the Judaism of that era through the lens of rabbinic or modern Orthodox Judaism and apply that lens to earlier periods, we misunderstand ancient Judaism and the Jewish people,” Olshnitzky said. “At that time, the rabbinic tradition did not represent all of Judaism, because most Jews were Hellenistic Jews. ‘Hellenistic’ is a derogatory term we must stop using immediately,” he said. “Although this form of Judaism eventually disappeared over the centuries, that does not mean it was inferior.”
Olshnitzky added, “We must remember that in the period in question, Hellenistic Judaism reflected the lifestyle of the vast majority of Jews, and so it should be regarded as ‘mainstream Judaism’ and referred to as such. Furthermore, many of the ideas and beliefs it contained are far older than the Hellenistic period.” His research shows that there was a significant Jewish presence in Syria during Zenobia’s reign, especially in Palmyra. “This is the first time we have been able to fully grasp the scope, significance and unique characteristics of this community, and to present it through a comprehensive body of literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence.”
This prominent Jewish center, likely the most important at the time, did not align with rabbinic Judaism—the stream of Jewish life based on the Oral Torah, Mishnah and Talmud—and its rulings. Rabbinic leaders opposed the Jews of Palmyra, objected to conversion practices and viewed Zenobia—a woman who had changed her faith—as a threat. According to historical accounts, Zenobia imprisoned several rabbis who saw her as an existential danger. They feared that if she defeated the Roman Empire, she would spread a non-rabbinic style of Judaism across its territories—a model later dismissed as “Hellenistic Judaism.”
Zenobia’s embrace of monotheism reflected a broader trend in the East. She may have deliberately avoided declaring specific religious loyalties in order to rally broader support. As part of this strategy, it is possible she converted secretly, waiting to reveal her religious commitment only after achieving victory. That choice would have been pragmatic, given the large numbers of Jews and God-fearers throughout the East, including within the Roman military units Zenobia hoped to win over. “Zenobia was not the first ancient queen, and she won’t be the last, to convert to Judaism,” Olshnitzky said. “Now, we can clearly see her political savvy and religious vision—an understanding that helps explain how she came so close to reshaping the Roman world.”
Zenobia’s rise alarmed Roman authorities. In 272 CE, Emperor Aurelian moved to restore order and eliminate the Palmyrene kingdom. His forces defeated Zenobia’s army near Homs, besieged and captured Palmyra. Zenobia was caught while attempting to flee to Persia and brought before Aurelian. Her fate remains disputed: some sources claim she was executed, while others say Aurelian spared her, married her to a Roman senator and allowed her to live out her life in a villa near modern-day Tivoli. After her capture, Palmyra rebelled again, prompting Aurelian to return and destroy the city entirely.
Although her kingdom lasted only a few years, Zenobia remains a striking and powerful historical figure. “Zenobia appears to have been one of the most capable leaders of antiquity,” Olshnitzky said. “She nearly succeeded in conquering the eastern Roman Empire, despite coming from a city with limited power. The very possibility that she could dismantle the empire, take control of parts of it and potentially establish a Judaism open to conversion must have terrified the rabbis of her time,” he said. “They understood that such success would cause every Jew to view her as a queen anointed by God, to see Syrian Judaism and its path as the true Judaism—and to reject entirely the rabbis’ local authority and influence.”
